Examples : Vindolanda , Lincoln

 

Both names are officially explained in Welsh. This section illustrates that there is an alternative.

Vindolanda is a place near Hadrian's Wall. The name is explained in Welsh: vindo+lann. 'vindo' = white +'llan' = land, fields.

The first problem lays within the word 'llan'. This is clearly the same word as 'land'. 'Land' is to be found in all German languages: middle Dutch, old high German, old Saxon, old Fries, old English, Gothic. Outside the German languages: old Irish: 'land', Welsh: 'llan', old Prussian: 'lindan' (valley), old Russian: 'ljadina' (shrubs, weed). The geographically limited spread of the word points towards a German substrate word [1], and not a PIE word. The word must have been introduced in Welsh first (where the 'd' disappeared), and later in Irish (where the 'd' was maintained). The problem is that the introduction of the proto-German word should have happened during pre-Roman times, as the place-name must have existed before the Roman settlement. Although this is not entirely impossible, if one believes that the whole of Britain spoke proto-Welsh, then the word must have replaced an original Welsh word.

The second problem is the word 'vindo' = 'white' and what it refers to. The meaning of Vindolanda (in Welsh) = 'white fields' is at least doubtful. Many objects in leather were discovered on the site because the soil is black due to a lack of oxygen.

The etymology in proto-English or Germanic is far more probable:
(1) Vindo means slightly raised in old Norse. The word is related to the verb 'to wind' in the sense of 'to wind, curve up'. It can also refer to the winding, crooked valley.
(2) Vind can also mean 'wind' (blowing air); the meaning would then be 'windy place'.
Land means a good place to build a home (farm) upon, an open space, a farmhouse with its fields.
The Germanic meanings correspond with the actual topology of the fort.

Vindolanda is situated in the middle of Hadrian's Wall, circa 35 miles from Newcastle-upon-Tyne (east coast in the north of England) and circa 35 miles of Carlisle (north-west coast). Its proto-English origin situates it or near the old language border, or can be an indication that proto-English had already moved up westwards before the Roman era. Ptolemy (second century AD) names nine towns as belonging to the north-British Brigantes: in Yorkshire, north-Yorkshire, Northumberland AND in Cumbria (west of the Pennines). The later kingdom of Northumbria would control the same region. Simple coincidence? It's more likely that in this region, the east dominated the west since pre-Roman times and continued to do so afterwards.
The Brythonic name Brigantes is linguistically identical the Germanic name Burgundes. It is possible that the Romans had Brythonic speaking interpreters. As Britain was bilingual, they would preferably note the Brythonic version. Both words mean 'citizens, burgh or bury people'.

Lincoln. The Roman name for Lincoln is well attested in the classical geographies. The name in Latin was Lindum Colonia or Lindensium Colonia (both are attested). "-coln"= colonia = a resting place for legionnaires.
In Welsh (or Brythonic) Lindum is generally supposed to mean “dark water” or Blackpool. The capital of Ireland Dublin means exactely the same: Dubh = dark, black + lin = pool. Here noun and adjective are reversed, which on itself is strange. Welsh: llyn=‘lake’ and Gaelic: linne=’pool’. '–dum' gives more difficulties. It could be '–dun'= ‘fort’, ‘castle’ or '–du'= ‘black’, ‘dark’. "-dun" is rejected because the Roman version would then be "-dunum". So, Lindum = Poolblack.
This is acceptable for Lindum, but its synonym Lindensium has a problem. An 'e' and 'i' are often interchanged. Those vowels are close when they occur in foreign (from the Roman point of view) languages. Confusing an 'e' with an 'u' is less likely. Lindensium cannot been explained in Brythonic.

If one supposes that the name was of proto-English origin, then all is very simple: Linden or Lime (tree) is the meaning. The original word is linde (singular; it’s the same word in Dutch or German and a substrate word limited to the German languages). Linden is a (forgotten in modern English) plural. Lindensium could be Latinised short for ‘next to where linden grow’.
This is possible because:
(1) Many English place-names refer to trees (e.g. Sevenoaks).
(2) Linden-sium is explained.
(3) Lindum means: linde (singular) + um (for declension).
The Roman fort was centered on a 60 meter high hilltop at the end of a limestone ridge and allegedly overlooked a hypothetical (and dark) pool in the river Witham from the north.
So, the trees upon the slope were limes (trees) or linden. The hilltop itself was not occupied by civilians. Hilltops can be very cold and windy and not well suited for living upon. The hamlet (Linden) must have existed on the sheltered slope facing south before the Roman camp was build, above the hamlet, and overlooking it.
I use Lincoln to demonstrate that a proto-English etymology is very well possible.

Map of Lincoln.

If Lincoln can be explained using proto-Welsh, the etymology of Witham (its river) remains officially a mystery. The old name was Wimme, Wemme (AD 1086). A possible explanation is a relation with old Saxon wemmian = 'bubble up', old High German wimmen = 'to move', modern Dutch wemelen = 'many movements, to swarm'.

So: Witham=moving waters. This explanation is straightforward and must have been discovered for long, but was rejected because an explanation in Welsh was mandatory.

Combine Witham and Lincoln, and it's clear that the region was proto-English.