A continental origin

 

Simplified recolonisation of Europe by hunters-gatherers according to Oppenheimer.

The Ice Age ended with the beginning of the Pre-Younger-Dryas (13000 until 11200 years ago). Previously the north of Europe was simply too cold to be inhabited by the new human species: the Cro-Magnon man, a human species of tropical origin. We can assume that there was some human presence in Britain 15000 years ago, but the numbers must have been negligible and seasonal. With the start of the Pre-Younger-Dryas came the first stage of ice melting and much of Europe became far more accessible for humans, although the climate was still cold. The second, final stage would happen when the Younger Dryas (11000 ->10200 years ago ) ended and the Holocene period began (10000 y.a.).

According to Oppenheimer, it was during the Pre-Younger-Dryas and the Younger Dryas period that Europe was colonized from Ice Age refuges. The refuge in northern Spain is called Ruisko and colonized mainly the regions next to the Atlantic coast. The refuges in Croatia (called Ivan) and in southern Russia (called Rostov) colonized most of the Continent. All genes became eventually unevenly mixed. E.g. Britain is more Ruisko, Germany is more Ivan and Rostov.

The first wave of humans who came from Ice Age refuges Ivan and Rostov spoke a language which was the earliest form of PIE [1]. To give it a name: the Ur-language [2]. For some reason the Basque language didn't impose itself, although I expect that some Basque words should be present along the Atlantic coast (e.g. in place-names, river names).

Language evolution

An ancestor of PIE languages came from the Ivan or Rostov refuge (or both). In the west and northwest, it mixed with languages which were of western Mediterranean origin. This mixed language evolved and unified regionally (because of the annual migrations and the winter gatherings) for maybe 4000 years. At the beginning of the Holocene, 10000 years ago, the opposite happened: migrations stopped and the languages diversified, more strong dialects appeared. Three major groups had emerged in western Europe: (1) Ur-Brythonic in west Britain, France and Spain (Atlantic coast), (2) Ur-Germanic in Bavaria, the North Sea coasts (including east Britain) and Scandinavia, (3) Ur-Occitan settled probably in northern Italy and southeast France at first. These languages were completely reshaped some 3000 years later (± 5000 BC) by a new version of the Proto-Indo-European language, which came along with agriculture. The Occitan language would spread itself between 8000 BC and 50 BC throughout Italy, south France and the Spanish east coasts. The old non-PIE languages there (e.g. Etruscan) gradually faded out. Only Basque survived. There is today no indication of old non-PIE languages more to the north (except Finnish).

Seasonal migrations

Our story begins circa 11 000 years ago (Younger Dryas- see picture above). It is winter and very cold. There is an ice cap over most of Scandinavia. Europe is covered with a forest-steppe (in pink). A forest-steppe is a mixture of patches of trees (birch and pine) and grassland. The more to the north, the less trees there are (tundra-steppe). The yellow area represents a dry steppe. Purple represents woodland. The sea level is much lower than today. Britain is a part of the continent. The first deciduous trees appear only in the far south of France and in Spain.

Big animals need a lot of grass. A steppe is covered with grass. The conditions were ideal for big migrating herds of European bison, deer, etc. This meant enough food for the humans, and a subsequent growth of their population.

A people I would like to call proto-Germans had its winter quarter in (modern) Bavaria where the herds sheltered. These herds were blocked there because of the ice cap over the Alps, and the Rhine in the west. Estimated human population: 50 000-60 000. The proto-Gauls stayed in (modern) southwest France for similar reasons. Estimated population: 80 000-90 000 souls. In the north, close to the ice-cap, were some 5000-6000 proto-Scandinavians.[3] Their lifestyle resembled that of the modern Inuit (Eskimos).

Spring came late to the barren land. In May the herds began to travel north. Herds travel much faster than humans can follow (on foot). The humans prepared themselves to go to their summer quarters, also in the north. They were organized in small clans, on average some 25-35 people; 4 up to 7 adult men, some elderly people and the rest were women, children and babies. Each clan had a well-known summer territory, inherited for many generations.

A fixed summer territory had many advantages.
(1) Mankind is very territorial. The reason is simple: it's all about food. The size of such a territory had to be just big enough (= enough game). It was determined by experience. Too big meant too much competition with other clans.
(2) It avoided yearly disputes and the occasional casualties.
(3) Each clan knew exactly where to go, was able to prepare for the voyage, knew what dangers lay ahead, how to overcome obstacles, etc.
(4) It allowed more investment in the local huts or shelters. In some places mammoth tusks were collected to build those huts. Mammoth tusks are very heavy. Sometimes they had to be carried by at least 2 men over kilometers. Not something you would do for just one summer. Wood was scarce in the steppe and needed for fuel. Such huts have been found.
(5) Efficient hunting depends upon a good knowledge of the territory. This knowledge was acquired over the years.

Some clans would have to travel for one month. As the good season lasts only 5 months, including one month to go and one month to come back, thus remain 3 months to stay. Not much. Going further north would narrow the season too much. The summer is normally a time of plenty, and fattening up for the next winter is what you would do. So, some time is needed. In spring the proto-Gauls spread all over France from the south. Some clans reached their northern limit : Belgium, at the maximum reasonable distance from South-France, some 750 km. That meant an average of 25 km a day on foot during a month. Arduous, especially for elder or very young people. The proto-Germans did the same and some ended up near the border of Denmark, a very similar distance. Of course, there were no roads. However, there was another way to reach the North. By boat.